This article presents a comprehensive investigation into the ecological and socio-economic consequences of Molinia caerulea (purple moor-grass) dominance across UK upland peatland ecosystems, with a particular focus on Dartmoor, Bodmin Moor, and the Penwith Moors. Drawing on ecological field surveys, economic data, farmer interviews, and scientific research from institutions such as the University of Exeter, it explores how the unchecked spread of Molinia has profoundly altered these landscapes.
Ecologically, Molinia monocultures have displaced native plant and animal species, disrupted hydrological processes, and significantly diminished the carbon sequestration potential of peatlands, one of the UK’s critical natural climate buffers. These changes threaten not only biodiversity but also national and global climate goals.
Simultaneously, upland farming communities are experiencing mounting socio-economic pressure. Traditional grazing systems, which once helped control Molinia growth, are in decline, exacerbated by falling farm incomes, changing subsidy regimes, and new environmental stewardship demands. Many farmers find themselves caught between the necessity of ecological restoration and the struggle to maintain their livelihoods.
The article assesses the capacity of current land-use and agricultural policy mechanisms to promote balanced, farmer-led restoration efforts. It finds that top-down, underfunded approaches often fail to account for local knowledge and economic realities, leading to ineffective or unsustainable outcomes.
Ultimately, the findings suggest the need for collaborative, well-resourced strategies that view farmers not as obstacles to restoration, but as central partners in ecological recovery. Success depends on fostering multi-stakeholder cooperation, enhancing rural economic resilience, and adopting adaptive, context-sensitive land management. Only through aligning environmental ambition with community sustainability can the UK’s upland landscapes thrive ecologically and socially into the future.
Introduction: Dartmoor’s wild and rugged beauty has long been shaped by a delicate interplay between nature and those who work the land. But in recent decades, that balance has been disrupted by the aggressive spread of Molinia caerulea, or purple moor-grass. Once a minor species, Molinia now dominates around 35% of Dartmoor’s common land, having surged from under 1% just a few decades ago (Natural England, 2020).
However, Dartmoor is not alone in facing this challenge. Molinia has become a defining feature of much of Wales, Exmoor, the Pennines, the Peak District, the North York Moors, the Yorkshire Dales, and many parts of Scotland. On Bodmin Moor, Molinia-dominated acid grassland stretches across thousands of hectares, while the Penwith Moors in west Cornwall contain over 60 hectares of Molinia-dominated mire designated under the M25 community. These Molinia wastes are increasingly ecologically impoverished areas where biodiversity has collapsed, and in which even insects and birds have become scarce.
This transformation prompts difficult questions: how can we reverse this ecological decline while supporting the farming families who are central to both the economy and culture of upland Britain?
Understanding the Ecological Shift: The rise of Molinia is a result of interacting ecological and anthropogenic factors. Traditional land management methods, particularly controlled burning or swaling, encourage regrowth of Molinia, whose deep root systems allow it to recover rapidly (Taylor et al., 2001).
Selective sheep grazing compounds the issue, as sheep avoid Molinia, instead consuming more palatable flora, enabling Molinia to expand (Milligan et al., 2018). Historic drainage has further dried upland soils, favouring grasses like Molinia over wetland species such as sphagnum moss and heather (Evans et al., 2005). Atmospheric nitrogen deposition from agricultural and industrial sources also fertilises these systems, promoting aggressive grass species (Fowler et al., 2013).
Environmental Consequences: The ecological cost is considerable. Molinia forms dense, low-diversity stands that displace a wide array of native species. This botanical simplification leads to cascading effects throughout the ecosystem, resulting in reduced populations of invertebrates, birds, and mammals (Smith et al., 2014).
Peatland degradation under Molinia reduces the land's carbon storage function. Drier soils oxidise peat, releasing greenhouse gases (Joosten, 2012). These same changes minimise water retention, worsening flood risk and degrading water quality (Holden et al., 2004).
Farming Under Pressure: Economic Realities in South West Uplands: Farmers across Dartmoor, Bodmin Moor, and Penwith face serious economic challenges. On Dartmoor, incomes dropped by over 20% between 2010 and 2020, a result of declining livestock prices, rising input costs, and policy uncertainty (Dartmoor Hill Farm Project, 2021).
Bodmin and Penwith communities face similar hardship. Farm business incomes on moorland grazing livestock farms across Cornwall are among the lowest in the UK. The Basic Payment Scheme (BPS) contributes over 80% of revenue on many upland holdings (DEFRA, 2021), but its replacement under Environmental Land Management (ELM) is not yet fully defined or funded. These shifts present existential threats to small farms.
Asking farmers to rewet fields, reduce grazing, or cease burning without guaranteed financial stability invites understandable resistance. And yet, many of these farmers view themselves not just as producers, but as custodians of the land.
Balancing Farming and Restoration: Efforts to restore peatlands must consider the viability of farming. Ditch-blocking, essential for raising water tables, can restrict access and grazing (Armstrong et al., 2009). Switching from sheep to cattle or ponies can better control Molinia (Fraser et al., 2009), but these transitions require infrastructure, training, and cultural adjustment.
Altering or restricting swaling risks alienating communities for whom fire is a traditional management tool (Davies et al., 2008). Successful restoration demands policies that view farmers not as barriers, but as allies.
No farmers, no food and no environmental management.
Evidence and Insight from the University of Exeter: The University of Exeter has led extensive research across Dartmoor, Exmoor, and Bodmin as part of the South West Peatland Partnership. Studies by Ashe, Gatis, Luscombe, Brazier and others have confirmed that ditch-blocking raises water tables, lowers carbon emissions, and slows erosion, though vegetative recovery remains slow (South West Water, 2020).
Gatis (2015) found that Molinia-dominated, drained peatlands sequester significantly less carbon. Wilson et al. (2016) demonstrated that methane emissions from rewetted sites diminish over time, and overall climate benefits persist. Fitzgerald (2020) documented improved biodiversity and reduced bare peat exposure in restored zones across Dartmoor.
Conservation grazing experiments show that cattle and ponies can suppress Molinia more effectively than sheep, while maintaining pastoral productivity (Fraser et al., 2009).
A Shared Vision for Uplands: Farmers on Dartmoor, Bodmin, and Penwith are well-positioned to lead ecological restoration. To achieve this, they require security, support, and respect.
Key components include:
- Transparent, accessible ELM payment structures. (See Appendix A)
- Precise valuation of ecosystem services: carbon, water, and biodiversity.
- Collaborative planning with local voices.
- Technical training and peer-led knowledge exchange.
Pilot projects, such as the Dartmoor Headwaters Scheme and Bodmin Restoration Initiatives, demonstrate that when farmers are trusted and resourced, progress follows.
Conclusion: The spread of Molinia caerulea across Dartmoor, Bodmin, and Penwith reflects a broader UK upland crisis: the erosion of biodiversity, climate resilience, and rural livelihoods. Addressing this requires more than ecological prescriptions; it demands economic justice and cultural respect.
If farmers are appropriately supported and included, they can drive restoration, not resist it. Rebalancing these landscapes means investing in their stewards.
References
Armstrong, A. et al., 2009. Drain-blocking techniques on blanket peat: a framework for best practice. Journal of Environmental Management, 90(11), pp.3512–3519.
Davies, G.M. et al., 2016. The role of fire in UK peatland and moorland management. International Journal of Wildland Fire, 25(5), pp.519–532.
Davies, O., Bodart, C. and Thomas, C., 2008. Traditional management and conservation of Dartmoor’s uplands. British Wildlife, 20, pp.112–119.
DEFRA, 2021. The Path to Sustainable Farming: Agricultural Transition Plan 2021 to 2024. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs.
Dartmoor Hill Farm Project, 2021. Annual Report and Strategic Outlook. Dartmoor National Park Authority.
Evans, M., Warburton, J. and Yang, J., 2005. Eroding blanket peat catchments. Geomorphology, 69(1–4), pp.275–287.
Fish, R., Seymour, S. and Watkins, C., 2003. Conserving English landscapes. Environment and Planning A, 35(1), pp.19–41.
Fitzgerald, R., 2020. Peatland Restoration Mapping for Dartmoor National Park Authority. University of Exeter.
Fowler, D. et al., 2013. Atmospheric nitrogen deposition. Biogeosciences, 10(10), pp.5921–5931.
Fraser, M.D. et al., 2009. Mixed grazing systems in uplands. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 131(3–4), pp.131–137.
Gatis, N., 2015. The Effect of Drainage Ditches on CO2 Fluxes and Vegetation in a Molinia-Dominated Peatland. MSc Thesis, University of Exeter.
Holden, J., Chapman, P.J. and Labadz, J.C., 2004. Artificial drainage of peatlands. Progress in Physical Geography, 28(1), pp.95–123.
Joosten, H., 2012. The Global Peatland CO2 Picture. Wetlands International.
Milligan, G. et al., 2018. Grazing management of Molinia caerulea-dominated grasslands. Biological Conservation, 226, pp.113–120.
Natural England, 2020. Site Improvement Plan: Dartmoor. Natural England.
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Short, C., 2008. The traditional commons of England and Wales. International Journal of the Commons, 2(1), pp.5–26.
Smith, R.S. et al., 2014. Vegetation composition in upland grassland. Plant Ecology & Diversity, 7(1–2), pp.157–165.
South West Water, 2020. South West Peatland Partnership Annual Report 2020. Exeter: South West Water.
Wilson, L. et al., 2016. Ditch blocking and carbon loss in a blanket peatland. Science of the Total Environment, 542, pp.537–546.
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Appendix A
The Structure of ELM
The Environmental Land Management scheme is structured into three components, each designed to support different scales and types of environmental benefit:
- Sustainable Farming Incentive (SFI)
The SFI is intended to be widely accessible and is open to all farmers who receive BPS payments. It offers payments for everyday sustainable farming actions. These include activities such as improving soil structure, protecting watercourses, and managing low-input grasslands. Specific upland options include moorland assessment and extensive grazing.
- Countryside Stewardship (CS)
CS supports more targeted and often more ambitious habitat and land management interventions. It is tiered into “mid-tier” and “higher-tier” schemes. The higher tier is especially relevant to upland farms and commons, supporting actions such as blanket bog restoration, species-rich grassland conservation, and the management of traditional boundaries, including hedgerows and stone walls.
- Landscape Recovery (LR)
LR is designed for large-scale, long-term landscape change. It is aimed at groups or consortia of farmers and landowners working together to restore natural systems across entire watersheds or catchments. Peatland rewetting, woodland creation, and river restoration are typical project themes.
Why ELM Matters for Upland Areas: Upland areas like Dartmoor, Bodmin Moor, and Penwith are ecologically rich but economically fragile. The landscape is dominated by common land and peat soils, which are often in poor condition due to past drainage, overgrazing, and the loss of traditional management practices. ELM aims to address these issues by offering farmers and commoners payments for practices that improve ecosystem health, including:
- Blocking old drainage ditches to re-wet peatland.
- Reducing livestock density in sensitive areas.
- Switching from sheep-only systems to mixed grazing using cattle or ponies.
- Restoring wetland vegetation such as sphagnum mosses.
- Enhancing biodiversity through wildflower-rich grassland management.
Challenges Faced by Upland Farmers under ELM
Despite its positive intentions, the rollout of ELM has presented several challenges:
Under the previous Basic Payment Scheme (BPS), many upland farms received over 80% of their income through direct area-based subsidies (DEFRA, 2021). The shift to “payment for public goods” has raised concerns that farmers will receive less predictable or insufficient income under ELM.
- Administrative Complexity:
The early implementation of SFI and CS was seen as overly complex and bureaucratic, particularly for small family-run farms or grazing associations managing common land.
- Lack of Upland-Specific Design:
Upland areas, especially those with low productivity and high conservation value, often struggle to meet the eligibility or practical requirements of many schemes. As of 2023, only 8% of SFI funding was reaching upland farms, despite their importance to national environmental goals.
Recent Improvements and Updates: In response to feedback, DEFRA has made several updates to make ELM more accessible and appealing to upland farmers:
- Payment rates were increased by 10% in 2024 across SFI and CS options.
- New actions were explicitly introduced for upland moorland, peatland management, and livestock grazing on commons.
- SFI and CS are now stackable, allowing farmers to combine payments across multiple schemes.
- A simplified online application system has been launched to reduce the paperwork burden.
For example, SFI now pays £151 per hectare for low-input grassland, up from £98/ha previously, aligning upland rates more closely with lowland equivalents.
Strategic Importance of Peatland and Molinia Restoration: The ELM scheme is especially relevant for tackling the spread of Molinia caerulea and restoring degraded peatlands. ELM payments can support farmers who:
- Block drainage ditches to raise the water table.
- Shift away from sheep-dominated systems.
- Allow natural regeneration of bog vegetation.
- Manage grazing intensity to restore species-rich habitats.
These actions contribute to national climate targets, biodiversity goals, and flood mitigation strategies, making ELM a valuable tool for both farming and environmental purposes.
Conclusion
Environmental Land Management (ELM) offers a new vision for British agriculture, one that aligns food production with environmental restoration. For upland communities in Dartmoor, Bodmin, and Penwith, the stakes are high. Done well, ELM can provide a stable income while supporting the restoration of some of the UK’s most damaged ecosystems.
However, its success depends on fair funding, user-friendly design, and a genuine partnership with farmers who are often best placed to steward the land. As Molinia caerulea spreads and peatlands dry, ELM could be the key to reversing the trend if it reaches and supports those working closest to the land.
